Title- International Social Work. Question- How does the social Essay

Title- International Social Work. Question- How does the social construction of childhood inform and affect international child protection measures - Essay Example It is on account of these reasons that the international communities and organizations have taken active interest in promoting and protecting the interests and well-being of young children through introduction of effective laws. The UN Convention on the Rights of Child (CRC) is one such international body that seeks protection of children exposed to adversity and has included it as one of their key agendas. The child protection and welfare organizations have, over the years, actively supported and fought for safeguarding young children from intolerable conditions. They argued that a child comes into the world defenceless in the face of an aggressive and violent society and that he is the first to suffer the terrible consequences of famine, war and socioeconomic crisis (qtd. in James, 1997, pp. 191). Hence in order to uphold the moral and ethical values international agencies such as The International Union for Child Welfare, Defence for Children International, UNCRC etc seek the protection of such vulnerable groups in the society. This paper on international social work seeks to understand, assess and explore the role and impact of the concept of ‘social construction of childhood’ in the framin g of international child protection laws. The term social construction refers to the idea / notion that has been created by society. Sociologists argue that childhood is a socially constructed phenomenon since it varies across cultures and does not conform to any form of universal standard or definition. This is mainly because what is considered deviant behaviour in one culture may be considered completely normal and acceptable in another thus implying that the concept of childhood is more of a socially constructed term rather than a natural biological phase. According to Aries (1973) the concept of childhood did not exist in the middle ages (qtd. in Hunt, 2005). It is also argued

Compare and Contrast Research Essay on Oedipus Rex

Compare and Contrast Research on Oedipus Rex - Essay Example It is dramatic irony that the residents are seeking the solution to the problem from the one person causing their suffering by killing his predecessor king Laius. Both the residents and king Oedipus are privy of this fact. Dramatic irony is an aspect of style used in literary analysis in which the words as well as the actions of the characters in a given work of literature portray a different meaning for the reader than they do for the characters themselves. The situation arises when the reader seem to have a wider knowledge than the characters in the story. It can further be defined as a dramatic effect in which the audience is lead to develop an understanding of an incongruity that exist between a given situation and the accompanying speeches while the characters in the play are completely not aware of the incongruity. Dramatic irony comes when the old prophet, Tiresias is summoned by the king; Oedipus ridicules him because he is blind. The audience understands that Oedipus is blind to the truth. Tiresias in a fit of anger tells Oedipus that though he can see he is â€Å"blind† to the truth. When Oedipus becomes blind, he finally realizes the truth of what Tiresias had told him. The dramatic irony is that it is actually the blind man who sees in mocking Tiresias, Oedipus calls Tiresias â€Å"shameless and brainless, sightless, senseless sot. It is ironical when Oedipus calls the old man shameless when he is actually the one who is shameless for killing his father, inheriting his throne and marrying his own mother. When he vows not to stop until he finds and punishes Laius’ killer he says: â€Å"Now, since I am ruler and holds this kingdom that he held before- holding also the bed and wife we have both sown; and children of the same mother would have been born to us, had his line no t been ill-fated-since chance (270) has driven me into that one’s powers, therefore I shall

The Formation Of Multinational Enterprises

The Formation Of Multinational Enterprises Firms or particularly Multinational companies (MNC) as part of their functioning cannot remain static. They have to break boundaries both in the geographical sense as well as economical sense, to actualize the opportunities in the new markets and emerge successful. As the name indicates, MNCs are Multinational companies, which operate in multi-nations as part of the internationalizations strategy, and thus are being influenced by various factors. That is, with every firms wanting to expand their geographical reach and make an imprint in various markets, there will be enough opportunities for it, to initiate an entry into a foreign market. To initiate and actualize the entry, organisations become Multinational firms. Thus, firms which want to successfully tap the opportunities, brought on by various factors including globalisation, in foreign countries become Multinational companies. To tap those opportunities, firms have to initiate country specific strategies from the recruitment st age to the recruitment stage, thereby fully evolving and actualizing into MNCs. MNCs are organisations that have substantial direct investment in foreign countries and actively manage those operations and regard those operations as integral parts of the company both strategically and organizationally. (Barlett, Ghoshal Beamish 2008, p. 2) MNCs have to set targets and formulate various strategies according to the situation prevailing in those foreign markets. As every foreign market or country will have different political, social, economic conditions as well as different customers, competitors, prospective employees, etc, etc, there will be many opportunities as well as challenges, which will block the firms success. Thus, these factors could influence the practices of MNCs, thus enabling the firm to become a complete MNC. Initial factors that lead to the formation of multinational businesses Nations and its firms have been engaged in doing business with other nations and firms in order to get profits and cultivate their economies. Although this form of trade is going for centuries, certain countries in certain period of time have imposed restrictions on this international trade. That is, these nations due to one reason or other actualized a protectionist regime, thereby blocking foreign companies to enter and do business in their territory. However, with the advent of globalization and the liberalization of the WTO regimes, this protectionist regime gave away to the regime of free trade, thus leading to the formation and proliferation of MNCs. Many countries have opened up their economies as part of Free Trade with globalization acting as the catalyst. In literal meaning Globalization is defined as a collective alteration, an elevated association between various societies and their fundamentals because of the transculturation, the explosive advancement of communication and transportation technologies to assist an exchange of global economy and culture. The arrangement of a global community in such a way there is an immense contact linking various parts of the globe, with elevating potential of individual switch over, communal understanding and companionship among world citizens, thereby leading to economic cooperation. When one looks at the economic or financial part of globalization, it is clear that globalization has given liberty to the business to initiate an entry into various prospective markets, based on the Free Trade regimes of the entering countries, thus leading to the formation of MNCs. The main strength of Free Trade is that, it puts forward the notion that minimalistic state role or intervention resulted in better eco nomy and importantly better society. That is, with greater role for private sector and importantly entrepreneurial role for individuals, it will be a breeding ground for MNCs. Free trade proposes that human well-being can best be advanced by liberating individual entrepreneurial freedoms and skills within an institutional framework characterized by strong private property rights, free markets, and importantly free trade (Harvey, 2001, p.2). Globalisations role in MNC formation Among the many economic based movements, globalisation is the one which had and is still having major impact on the economic development of many countries and its people worldwide. The word globalisation marks a set of transitions in the global political economy since the 1970s, in which multinational forms of capitalist organisation began to be replaced by transnational (Appadurai, cited in Meyer and Geschiere 1999, p. 307). Economic part of globalisation is the key because with the whole world becoming a kind of global village, barriers between the countries are broken with integration happening mainly in the economic aspects. In this scenario, foreign organisations, using the globalisation plank, have entered and will also enter various sectors of the businesses leading to the establishment of many MNCs. Globalization is widely seen to be the dominant tendency of our time. It is a shorthand expression for a variety of processes encompassing worldwide integration of financial syste ms, trade liberalization, deregulation and market opening (Mathews 2006, p. 6) With these MNCs providing good employment and the resultant good development, people of those countries have became financially stable and are going in search of material comforts, causing impacts on social change. From earlier times, many Third World countries including Asian and African countries only indulged in agriculture for their livelihood. However, with the onset of globalization and the opening up their markets as Free Trade regimes, these countries and their governments started to focus on industrial development, by improving their own industries and importantly by facilitating entry of foreign companies. Thus, globalization and the resultant Free Trade turned out to be a great boon for the formation and the development of MNCs. These countries as part of their Free Trade regimes opened up their markets and enticed the foreign companies with a slew of beneficial financial and social schemes. The other reason why MNCs are further welcomed by the foreign countries leading to further evolution is the need for economic development, as there is still major portion of population living in abject poverty. Despite formidable strides in poverty reductionAccording to World Bank calculations, out of a total 2.3 billion people in China and India, roughly 1.5 billion earn less than US$2 a day. Only rapid economic growth can hit them out of abject poverty (Aslam). So, it is clear that the current economic growth will be sustained and even accelerated by these countries by welcoming MNCs in a more optimal manner. As a sizeable portion of good profits reached the local employees, thereby improving their economic standing and also optimizing countrys economy, MNCs can become a common phenomenon. Although, there are some opposition to MNCs on the grounds that it severely affects the indigenous firms, people has started to realise that MNCs are not the culprit. Loss of customers and market share, happens mainly due to the inability of the local businesses, however they wrongly fear that large multinationals would drive them into extinction and cripple domestic entrepreneurship. (Bhagwati 2004, p.181). So, this globalization and the resultant industrial and financial optimization are welcomed by majority of the people, with the government of these countries also taking maximum initiatives to support MNCs. Factors during Recruitment process that aids MNCs formation One of the main factors which play a key role in the formation of the MNCs is the workforce. That is, MNCs will normally put more focus during. Optimal recruitment function will only provide constant availability of effective employees. This recruitment function in a MNC will be quite different from the recruitment in a national firm, with regional factors being the strong criterion. National or indigenous firms will normally be established by recruiting the sons and the daughters, that is, citizens of a particular country, while MNCs will have a mix of employees from many countries taking into account both the national and regional factors. In MNCs, the employees will be recruited mainly from the local population, thus giving the firms a multinational outlook. Recruitment of these diverse local or regional workers under the concepts of IRHM will be a common feature in MNC. That is, MNC will be consisted of employees from three national or country categories, when they are recruited to fulfil the various needs of the MNC. The employees from the parent country where the firm is usually headquartered or based (or came from) are called Parent Country nationals (PCNs). The employees from the host country where a subsidiary or MNC may be located are called host country nationals (HCNs). Finally, there will be third or other countries which may be the source of labor, finance, research and development, and the employees from these countries are called third country nationals (TCNs) (Scullion Collings 2006). Among these three groups of workers, MNCs will be duty bound and also logically recruit the first two groups of workers and thus will become an MNC in actual sense of the word. This recruitment process, apart from complying with the unwritten rule of giving maximum employment to the local population, will also benefit the MNC in many ways. That is, apart from elevating the organisations image in the eyes of the local population, it will also provide them with sur plus and at times cheap labour. Thus, MNC by recruiting HCNs as part of regional factors can achieve two targets in one single action. Conclusion With globalisation making both positive and negative impacts, multinational businesses with sound business strategies should have surmount the challenges. Unison of humans into a team, with an urge to usher the organisation into a successful territory will actualize, only if the workers show optimum functionality. But, as a kind of cycle, only if apt, qualified, equipped workers are recruited, they could exhibit optimum functionality. For that, as discussed in this paper, the staffing process of the organisations has to be optimum. That is, when it comes to Multinational companies stationed or located in foreign lands, all the organisational processes have to be implemented in an effective manner based on the various influencing factors.

Hunger Of Memory Essay -- essays research papers

The theme of separation is an important development in the novels Hunger of Memory and How the Garcia Girls lost their Accent. The novels deal with separation differently. For Hunger of Memory by Richard Rodriguez, the separation allows Richard to move from the private world to the public world. Here, separation is a movement for a solution, which is citizenship. In How the Garcia Girls Lost their Accent by Julia Alvarez, the separation is an effect from Antojo. Richard Rodriguez immediately recognizes the separations in his early life. He considers the inside of his house to be private and the outside of his house to be public. His family and the Spanish language belong to his private society. It contains a feeling of intimacy and a sense of belonging. The los gringos, school and the English language are associated with the pubic society. Several other kinds of separation emerge from this separation of public and private society. There are separations of sound and word, female and male, and reason and affection. Richard believes it is natural to move from one separation into another. He needs to do this in order to move from the private to the public society. This movement is voluntary by Richard and forced by his parents. It is done to help Richard’s education. It will give him better opportunities in the United States. Speaking only English at home initiates the movement, instead of speaking Spanish. Ultimately, Richard can have a sense of belonging to the pu...

Aspect Of Contract And Negligence For Business

Abstract This paper is focused on providing information about important principles of contract and negligence for business. The first part of the paper discusses the specificity of contract law by emphasising details from two case studies: East Midlands Airways Airbus and a case of the supply of mobile phones. The second part of the paper provides information about principles of tort law, as initially liability in tort is contrasted with contractual liability. The emphasis in the second part is on negligence for business, with reference to the case study of King’s Restaurant and a case involving Angelina and Christian Auctioneers.IntroductionIn the area of law, numerous aspects should be given importance. The issue of contract and negligence for business has received substantial attention in the field of legal practice. This paper is divided into two major parts covering issues from contract law and tort law (Elliott and Quinn, 2003). In the first part of the paper, the focus is on ide ntifying major elements for the formation of a valid contract as well as assessing the impacts of different types of contracts. There are two main case studies involved, respectively East Midlands Airways Airbus and the supply of mobile phones. In the part on tort law, liability in tort is contrasted with contractual liability through providing relevant examples from a case study of King’s Restaurant and a case of Angelina and Christian Auctioneers (Horsey and Rackley, 2011).Contract LawLegal ElementsIn the case study of East Midlands Airways (EMA) Airbus, it is important to identify essential legal elements for the formation of a valid contract. There are certain major elements that indicate the legal bonding of the contract. They should be thoroughly considered as part of contributing to the validity of the contract (Poole, 2012). The first legal element refers to the inclusion of an offer, which indicates one’s willingness to enter into a specific bargain. In this c ase, an offer is made by Phil, the Chief Executive Officer of Zulu Aviation Ltd. Another important legal element for the formation of a valid contract is associated with acceptance, which should indicate an agreement to the terms initially made. Phil’s offer of ?100,000 for reserving the Airbus 321 has been accepted by Joseph, EMA’s Managing Director. The third significant legal element showing the validity of the discussed contract is the availability of a legal purpose (Knapp et al., 2012). It is clear that the contract’s purpose is legal because it is based on the sale of a second-hand Airbus 321. Furthermore, mutuality of obligation presents a situation in which both parties ensure mutual understanding to the expression and form of their agreement. In other words, a common expectation is that the parties need to agree to the same thing, which is described in the same manner, and at the same time. These legal conditions have been met by both Phil and Joseph. Consideration indicates another essential element for the formation of a valid contract (Poole, 2012). Legal binding needs to be supported by valuable and realistic consideration. In the case study of EMA, Phil ensures his consideration by claiming that he will pay ?100,000 to EMA if the latter promises not to sell the Airbus 321 to another buyer for the period of five days. The importance of these components reflects in the validity and legality of the contract to be established, and if any of these conditions are non-present, it is virtually impossible to form a valid contract (Knapp et al., 2012).Impacts of Different Ty pes of ContractWhen discussing the specificity and implications of contract law, it is important to consider the impacts of different types of contract, such as bilateral and unilateral contracts, express and implied contracts, void and voidable contracts, and distance selling contracts (Hillman, 2004). Bilateral contracts are commonly used in daily life, as they represent an agreement between at least two individuals or groups. Unilateral contracts are associated with an action undertaken by one individual or group alone, as this type of contract allows only one individual to involve in making a specific promise or agreement (Elliott and Quinn, 2003). In express contracts, a promise is stated in a clear language, while in implied contracts, the focus is on presenting behaviours or actions which lead parties to believe that a certain agreement exists (Hillman, 2004). Void contracts are contracts that cannot be enforced by either party. According to law, void contracts are perceived as if they had never been established. The main aspect of void contracts refers to a situation where one of the parties performs in an illegal manner (Hillman, 2004). Therefore, void contracts cannot be conducted under the law. An example of void contracts can be found in Dickinson v Dodds [1876], where there is only an offer made and was intended to be an offer solely because it did not result in any legally binding agreement. There was no consideration ensured or promise and thus was judged non-binding. Although in the case of Shuey v US [1875] the revocation is prominent as the offer is, the type of offer is considered non-binding. On the other hand, voidable contracts are based on enforcement and hence they are valid (Elliott and Quinn, 2003). In general, only one of the parties is legally bound to such contracts. Yet, the unbound party has the right to cancel the contract and thus the contract automatically becomes void (Knapp et al., 2012). This implies that voidable contracts represent valid, legal agreements. Distance selling contracts refer to the main responsibility assumed under the law to protect consumers while they conduct shopping activities online. Such regulations also occur in situations where consumers enter into other contracts, as they are at a distance from the supplier (Hillman, 2004). Special protection is ensured to customers on the basis that they are unable to meet directly with the supplier and check the quality of goods and services that are offered for sale. Distance selling regulations have been enforced in the UK since 2000, but it is essential to note that they are inapplicable to contracts between businesses (Elliott and Quinn, 2003). The main legal effect of these regulations is that they enable consumers with the right to receive accurate and proper information about the supplier, including the products and services that are provided for sale. In addition, consumers tend to receive a written confirmation of such information, which makes the regulations credible . There is also a cancellation period of seven working days in which consumers have the right to withdraw from the contract. Individuals receive protection from different forms of fraud associated with the option of using payment cards (Knapp et al., 2012).Case Study of EMAIn the case study of EMA, the focus is on determining whether the two parties have formed a valid, legal contract. As previously mentioned, the parties applied each of the essential legal elements for a valid contract, including offer, acceptance, legal purpose, mutuality of obligation, and valuable consideration. The terms of the contract between EMA and Zulu Aviation Ltd are clearly specified. However, it can be argued that the type of contract presented by the two parties is express considering that the promise for forming a legally binding agreement has been stated in a clear language verbally, via phone (Poole, 2012). Despite the precise form of the binding procedure, the validity of such express contract is apparent. There are strictly claimed promises on the behalf of both sides: the first party needs to pay a particular amount of money to guarantee the sale of the Airbus 321; the other needs to keep his promise not to sell the Airbus 321 to another buyer for the next five days. It can be concluded that such initial conditions of forming a legal contract have been met (MacMillan and Stone, 2012). Simply put, there is an offer followed by an acceptance by EMA’s Managing Director. An example of the complex transaction that took place between EMA and Zulu Aviation Ltd can be found in the case of Byrne v. Van Tienhoven (1880), which presents relevant inferences on the issue of revocation with regards to the postal rule. In the case of EMA and Zulu Aviation Ltd, the phone rule (considering the phone conversation between Phil and Joseph) may not apply in revocation. In other words, while a phone conversation to arrange a contract may simply indicate a valid acceptance, it is most lik ely that the court will rule that it does not count as proper and valid revocation (MacMillan and Stone, 2012). Moreover, there is a stated legal purpose that legally binds both parties to form a valid agreement. They are focused on keeping their promise, which is an initial requirement for the establishment of a legal contract. It can be indicated that the objective of the contract between EMA and Zulu Aviation Ltd is to achieve a legal purpose. Thus, the condition of a creating a purpose for the existence of a binding contract has been applied in the case (Poole, 2012). The mutuality of obligation is also evident considering the motifs and promises ensured by both sides. There is a strong sense of mutual understanding on the behalf of each party regarding the expression and specificity of their agreement. In addition, there is an objective standard being applied in the case in terms of determining what the parties have precisely said in the process of forming their agreement (Knapp et al., 2012). The fact that the offer is clear and definite is indicative of both parties’ acceptance o f the terms outlined in the offer. There is a valuable consideration illustrated in the statement of Phil, who is ready to pay ?100,000 in case EMA’s Managing Director fulfils his promise. Therefore, this case study illustrates the application of an express contract law (MacMillan and Stone 2012).Implications regarding the Supply of Mobile PhonesThe only specified term in the contract between Key Services Enterprise (KSE) Ltd and Unique Mobile Solutions (UMS) Ltd is that of the provision of 500 mobile telephones, which are suitable for use in the UK. The court will classify these types of contractual terms as intermediate or innominate terms (Poole, 2012). The status of these terms is not clearly defined, as their significance lies between a condition and a warranty. Innominate terms were established in the case of HK Fir Shipping v Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha [1962], where the defendants chartered a ship for the duration of two years from the plaintiffs. In the agreement establish ed between the two parties, there was a specific clause indicating that the ship was suitable for performing cargo service. Due to problems with the engine, 20 weeks of the charter were lost and thus the defendants were entitled to bring an action for damages for breach of contract on the grounds of the clause specified in the agreement (MacMillan and Stone, 2012). Under the circumstance that the use of the telephones supplied was illegal in the UK, and they could not be modified to make their use legal, the court will classify this term as misrepresentation or a false statement made by the mobile phone seller regarding the use of the products. As in the case of Gordon v Selico [1986], it is possible to make a misrepresentation by words or by conduct. However, it should be considered that representation is not a term. Moreover, the telephones supplied required tuning to particular frequencies, a task taking two minutes for each one. This aspect also indicates the presence of innominate terms (Knapp et al., 2012). However, under the circumstance in which the CEO of KSE signed the contract with UMS, there is no reference to any other document. In addition, KSE’s CEO accepted the receipt of the transaction without reading it, which represents a serious mistake that can be identified as negligence in lawful terms. The harm caused by the deci sion of KSE’s CEO to sign a contract with UMS is as a result of his carelessness. There is a failure to behave with the proper level of care required for the described circumstances (Poole, 2012). On the back of the receipt provided by UMS, the statement can be classified by the court as an exclusion clause because the provider of the mobile phones has directly excluded liability for contractual breach. In an attempt to analyse the exclusion clause as a term under the circumstance in which KSE’s CEO accepted the receipt without reading it, specific implications can be drawn. As a term in a contract, an exclusion clause indicates the purpose to limit or restrict the rights of the parties bound to the contract (Hillman, 2004). A true exclusion clause, as in the case of UMS, recognised a potential breach of contract, and then serves as an excuses liability for any potential breach. Therefore, it can be concluded that an exclusion clause was ‘incorporated’ into the contract with KSE. The effect of this term in the contract should be evaluated on the basis of incorporation (Elliott and Quinn, 2003). This means that UMS has actually incorporated an exclusion clause by signature (at the back of the receipt of the transaction provided to KSE). The fact that KSE’s CEO accepted the receipt and signed it means that the respective clause is considered part of the cont ract. Yet, the party representing the clause, UMS, has not taken any reasonable steps to bring it to the close attention of the second party in the contract (MacMillan and Stone, 2012). Applying the legal controls that the court would use in assessing the validity of the term in the contract should refer to principles of strict literal interpretation and contra proferentem (Hillman, 2004). In order an exclusion clause to operate, it needs to cover the breach with an assumption of a potential breach of contract. In case there is a breach of contract, the specific type of liability which is emerging is also relevant in the process of interpretation by the court. There is strict liability involved, which arises as a result of a state of affairs in which the party at breach is not necessarily identified as responsible for the fault (Smits, 2005). However, the court needs to consider the case of liability for negligence, or in other words, liability arising as a result of fault. A common tendency demonstrated by the court would be to require the party which relies on the clause to have drafted it adequately in order to result in a situation where that party is exempted f rom the liability arising (Cauffman, 2013). In the presence of ambiguity, as it might be in the case of KSE and UMS, the court would most probably apply the legal control of strict literal interpretation against the party which extensively relies on the exclusion clause in the contract. In the process of assessing the validity of the exclusion clause in the contract, the court may also apply the legal control of contra proferentem (MacMillan and Stone, 2012). In case ambiguity persists even after attempts have been made to construe an exclusion clause with regards to its natural meaning, the court may decide to apply a rule identified as contra proferentem. This term implies that the clause needs to be construed against the party in the contract that imposed its initial inclusion, respectively UMS. In the context of negligence, the court would most probably take the approach that a party would enter into a contract that permits the second party to evade fault based liability (Cauffman, 2013).Law of TortLiability in Tort and Contractual LiabilityWhile discussing certain implications of liability, contrasting liability in tort with contractual liability is important. All activities initiated by individuals as well as organisations are regulated by law. Tort law repres ents a branch of the civil law, and it should be considered that any dispute in civil law is usually between private parties (Horsey and Rackley, 2011). As indicated in the previous section, strict liability illustrates a solid legal doctrine according to which a party is held responsible for the damages resulting by his or her actions. Strict liability is also applicable to tort law especially in cases involving product liability lawsuits (Okrent, 2014). In the context of tort law, strict liability refers to the process of imposing liability on a party or individual without a particular finding of fault. In case fault is found, the court would determine a situation known as negligence or tortuous intent (Hodgson and Lewthwaite, 2012). As a result, the plaintiff would need to prove the occurrence of the tort and the implied responsibility of the defendant. The objective of strict liability is to discourage any forms of reckless behaviour as well as irrelevant product development and manufacturing. Therefore, liability in tort refers to the duty of care along with the negligence of that duty. On the other hand, contractual liability is associated with a situation in which two or more parties promise specific things to each other (Okrent, 2014). Liability in tort and contractual liability are similar in the point that they are both civil wrongs, and the individual wronged sues in the court in order to obtain compensation. However, the m ain difference is that in a claim related to liability in tort, the defendant may not have been involved in any previous relationship or transaction with the claimant. On the contrary, in a claim of contractual liability, the main condition that should be met is that the defendant and claimant should be the parties representing the contract (Hodgson and Lewthwaite, 2012).Case Study of King’s RestaurantIn an attempt to analyse the situation described in the case study of King’s Restaurant, it appears that it should be considered on the basis of tort of negligence. The claimants in this case, Carlos and Janet, need to prove certain elements to the court so as to provide a valid proof of negligence and claim damages (Okrent, 2014). These elements refer to proving that the restaurant owed them a strict duty of care; the restaurant breached that particular duty of care; and Carlos and Janet suffered damage resulting from the breach. The notion of the duty of care was establ ished in Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] in which the court enforced the decision that an individual may sue another person who caused them loss or damage even in the absence of contractual relationship. Yet, in the case of Carlos and Janet, it needs to be considered that even if the court proves negligence, the restaurant may have a defence that protects it from liability, or decreases the precise amount of damages it is liable for (Horsey and Rackley, 2011). Hence, it can be argued that there is tortuous liability action against the restaurant. There is a breach of a statutory duty in King’s Restaurant case study, as the direct consequence was harming a person, which gives rise to tortuous liability for the restaurant towards Carlos and Janet under the legal doctrine of negligence (Christie et al., 1997). However, the victim should be identified in the class of individuals protected by the statute. Another important condition related to the success of the tort suit is that the injury should be of the specific type that the statute intended to prevent. Thus, the claimants need to prove their claim on specific balance of probabilities. It is also important for Carlos and Janet to show that the damage suffered is not quite remote from the breach (Horsey and Rackley, 2011). It should be assumed that a duty of care existed in this case because King’s Restaurant is identified as an award-winning and very expensive English restaur ant, which directly brings the conclusion that the services provided by the restaurant should be at a superior level. The standard of care should be determined through expert testimony and through the consideration of applicable, professional standards in the industry. The harm in the case is mostly physical, which makes it a sufficient claim for negligence. The problem in the case study can be resolved if Carlos and Janet definitely consider the option of claiming tortuous liability against the restaurant (Christie et al., 1997).Case Study of Angelina and Christian AuctioneersIn this case, the legal principles of tort of professional negligence misstatement and vicarious liability can be applied. The tort of professional negligence misstatement refers to representing a fact, which is improperly and carelessly made. This claim is usually relied on by another party and results in their disadvantage (Hodgson and Lewthwaite, 2012). Vicarious liability presents a doctrine according to w hich an individual is responsible for the actions of another person because of a special relationship available between the parties, such as the one between an employer and an employee. Angelina has rights and remedies against Brad and Christian Auctioneers in connection with the incorrect advice given to her about the worth of the painting (Okrent, 2014). In the case, Angelina relies on the other party for their expertise, knowledge, and judgment. Moreover, the person who provided advice to Angelina, Brad, knew that the other party was relying on him and his judgment about the painting. It can be also argued that it was reasonable for Angelina in the presented circumstances to rely on Brad and Christian Auctioneers. Brad on the behalf of his organisation, Christian Auctioneers, has given a negligence misstatement regarding the painting’s value. His judgment was personal rather than professionally based (Hodgson and Lewthwaite, 2012). Angelina’s rights against Brad and Christian Auctioneers are based on the premise of the special relationship established between her and this organisation. In the process of examining the special relationship concept, an example can be observed in the case of Shaddock & Associates PTY Ltd v Parramatta City Council [1981], in which a solicitor acting on behalf of Shaddock established contact with the Parramatta City Council to seek advice regarding the potential impact on a property as a result of road widening proposals (Okrent, 2014). The council employees gave the solicitor a negligent misstatement, and as a result, Shaddock purchased the property and significant losses have been suffered. When applying the law in the case of Angelina, duty of care should be established in order to claim for negligence. It is important to consider the question of whether it was reasonably foreseeable that the actions of Brad and Christian Auctioneers would cause harm or loss to Angelina. Fu rthermore, it is essential to establish the presence of a physical or factual link between Angelina and Brad and Christian Auctioneers. It can be deduced that their relationship was physical considering that Angelina approached the company to give her a valuation of some antique furniture present at her flat (Christie et al., 1997). The court would also need to determine the vulnerability of the plaintiff, and it can be indicated that the vulnerability to Angelina was high because she was relying on Brad and Christian Auctioneers for their professional advice in order to make a sound decision (Horsey and Rackley, 2011). The court would need to consider the actual damages caused. Considering that Angelina sold a valuable painting of Rembrandt for only ?100 is indicative of the losses she suffered due to the incorrect advice given to her. Moreover, the principle of vicarious liability could also refer to this case (Horsey and Rackley, 2011). Vicarious liability is applicable because liability is attributed to Christian Auctioneers that has a responsibility for its employee, Brad, who negligently causes a loss to Angelina because of the incorrect advice provided to her. In other words, the employer is responsible for the actions of the employee. Therefore, this form of strict liability can be imposed on Christian Auctioneers due to the negligent conduct of its employees in the case of Angelina (Okrent, 2014).Possible Defences Available to Christian AuctioneersThere could be possible defences available to Christian Auctioneers. Such defences are mainly based on the assumption whether there is a contractual relationship between the parties (Okrent, 2014). An example of this aspect can be found in the case of Henderson v Merrett Syndicates Ltd [1994], emphasising a statement of responsibility by an individual providing pr ofessional services along with reliance by the individual for whom the services were provided. Therefore, in the case of Angelina, it can be deduced that there was no special, contractual relationship between the parties (Christie et al., 1997). Angelina sought a free valuation, which may imply that there would not be liability for such type of information.ConclusionThis paper discussed essential aspects of contract law and tort law. The first part of the paper focused on describing the elements comprising a valid, legal contract along with differentiating the effects of common contracts (MacMillan and Stone, 2012). Details from two case studies were provided, namely from East Midlands Airways Airbus case and the case involving the supply of mobile phones. Important issues pertaining to contract law were discussed with the application of relevant law. The second part of the paper emphasised important principles of tort law by differentiating liability in tort and contractual liabili ty. Negligence liability was discussed with regards to the case study of King’s Restaurant. Specific details about tort of professional negligence misstatement and vicarious liability were provided in the case study of Angelina and Christian Auctioneers (Okrent, 2014). In conclusion, legal and business practitioners need to stay informed about valid and applicable law principles with regards to contract and negligence in order to adhere to professional standards of conducting appropriate business practices. References Byrne v Van Tienhoven [1980] CPD 344 Cauffman, C. (2013). ‘The Principle of Proportionality and European Contract Law’. Maastricht Faculty of Law Working Paper. Working Paper No. 2013-05. Christie, G. C., Meeks, J. E., Pryor, E. S., and Sanders, J. (1997). Cases and Materials on the Law of Torts. St. Paul, MN: West. Dickinson v Dodds [1876] Ch. D. 463 Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] UKHL 100 Elliott, C. and Quinn, F. (2003). Contract Law. London: Longman. Gordon v Selico [1986] HLR 219 Henderson v Merrett Syndicates Ltd [1994] UKHL 5 Hillman, R. A. (2004). Principles of Contract Law. St. Paul, MN: West. HK Fir Shipping v Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha [1962] EWCA 7 Hodgson, J. and Lewthwaite, J. (2012). Tort Law Textbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Horsey, K. and Rackley, E. (2011). Tort Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Knapp, C. L., Crystal, N. M., and Prince, H. G. (2012). Problems in Contract Law: Cases and Materials. New York: Wolters Kluwer Law & Business. MacMillan, C. and Stone, R. (2012). Elements of the Law of Contract. London: Stewart House. Okrent, C. (2014). Torts and Personal Injury Law. New York: Cengage Learning. Poole, J. (2012). Casebook on Contract Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Shaddock & Associates PTY Ltd v Parramatta City Council [1981] HCA 59 Shuey v US [1875] 92 US 73 Smits, J. M. (2005). ‘The Principles of European Contract Law and the Harmonization of Private Law in Europe’. Maastricht University Faculty of Law, pp. 567-590.

Acid rain

The French chemist Ducros first used the term ‘pluie acide' in 1845. The phraqse ‘acid rain' ,was brought in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith (Wellburn, 1994). Back in fifties, there were observations of lakes in Scandinavia losing their fish populations. Anglers and naturalists noticed that fish stocks in many lakes of southern Scandinavia were diminishing. Freshwater acidification had rapidly worsened over a few decades. Although acid rain and the acidification are a not new problem that has received considerable attention for many years, it was not until 1960s that scientists were able to link these effects to any specific cause. Later it was found to be atmospheric pollution. Acidification is not a regional phenomenon. In Scotland, studies show that the acidification began around the middle of the last centuries and the process has accelerated in the last three decades. In southern Norway, It has reported that 87 lakes had a pH below 5.5 (Mason, 1996). Damaged forests were becoming widespread in West Germany. As these examples show, acidification is an international problem. Pollutants may be carried with winds over distances, from points hundreds or thousands of miles away. Some countries are net importers of pollution, and others are exporters. The effects of acidification are varies, not only pollution of lakes and forests as previously mentioned, but also effects on fauna and flora, soil, groundwater and direct or indirect harm on human health, and all things are influenced by water quality through hydrological pathway (Thunberg, 1993). The aim of this report is to discuss causes and effects of acidification that has been concerned until now, and present possible short-term and long-term soluti on to acid deposition effects on water quality 1. Acidification and its causes Airborne pollution can influence the environment both directly and indirectly. Primary pollutant is Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. When these are present in high concentrations, they can cause damage on environment and human's health. These direct effects are often peak in the vicinity of the emission sources. Industrial society discharges suphur dioxide and nitrogen that form sulphuric acid and nitric acid, which may be carried with the winds over long distances before descending in rain or snow. Indirect effects often occur as acidified soil and water far away from the sources of emission (Thunberg, 1993). There are gas-phase reactions, which produce acidity in the atomosphere. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides form suophuric and nitric acids on coming into contact with water. When these acids reach the ground in rain and snow, it is called ‘wet deposition'. However, acid oxides may also be deposited directy as gases, or cles, which is called ‘dry deposition'. The rates of dry deposition velocity may depend on the nature of the land surfaces. Rates of wet deposition depend on the precipitation rate, the washout ratio of dissolved pollutant per unit mass of cloud water or rain divided by the concentration of the same pollutant per unit mass of air (Wellburn, 1994. A low pH value means a high level of acidification. Water in neutral condition has a pH of 7 (Thunberg, 1993). Sulphur and Nitrogen Cycles are presented below (Figure 1 and 2). Figure 1. Sulphur Cycle Source: ICU (2003) Figure 2. Nitrogen Cycle Source: ICU (2003) 1.1 Sulphur Sulphur compounds are responsible for about two-thirds of the acidification of rain. Sulphur in gaseous form, sulphur dioxide (SO2), is mainly formed in the combustion of oil and coal. The rapid increase in emission of pollutants came after the war followed by consumption of fuel and oil. It was reported that approximately 20 million tons of sulphur are now emitted every year in Europe. There is also a great deal of airborne pollution in North America, where about 12 million tons of sulphur is released every year. Sulphur can be formed by naturally by eruption of vulcanoes, from seas and oceans and certain processes in the soil. However, 90 per cent of the emissions of sulphur to the atmosphere are derived from industrialised parts of Europe and North America. This is ten times the level that can be considered natural (Thunberg, 1993). 1.2 Nitrogen Nitrogen oxides (NOX) are grouped term of nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen oxides are formed in all types of combustion, most of the NOX are formed by the reaction of nitrogen gas in the combustion air with oxygen. When the mixture of nitrogen gas and oxygen is heated, they interrelate to form NOX. The higher the combustion temperature, the more NOX will be formed. The largest source of NOX emission is road traffic. These emissions are reported to have doubled during the 1960s, approximately 22 million tons of NO2 are released every year in Europe. Certain types of fertilizer are another source of nitrogen pollution. Nitrate leaching intensified the acidification of the soil, which release unwanted substances such as aluminium (Thunberg, 1993). 2. The environmental effects of acidification 2.1 water acidification and aquatic biota Acidification was first noticed in the lakes. The initial victims of acidification are nutrient-deficient lakes in areas where the soil has a poor buffering ability (Thunberg, 1993). It is reported that many lakes in the Rocky Mountain have little alkalinity to buffer increase in acid deposition, however loss of alkalinity has been observed caused by high concentration of acid deposition due to the emission in the Rocky Mountain region (Turk et al, 1989). Figure 3. Acidified lake: A deep blue colour of a lake is a sign of acidification. Source: ARIC (2000) In severely acidified lake, the fish will have vanished entirely, bog moss will have spread out over the lake floor, and only few plant and animal species will remain. The first victims of acidification are crayfish, snails and mussels, certain types of zoo- and phytoplankton, and some species of mayfly. Usually, certain types of bog moss and insects those are resistant to acidification remains. This is not only low pH value that takes a heavy toll of fauna and flora. In acid lakes there are increased concentrations of aluminium in ion form, which is highly toxic to many organisms. The loss of fauna / flora is due to the combination of a lowered pH and aluminium poisoning. The level of other heavy metals also rises such as cadmium, zinc, and lead. Those heavy metals including aluminium flow into lakes from the acidified soils of the surroundings. The relationship of prey and predators will also change, for instance certain insects on which they usually prey begin to thrive when their predators are disappeared (Thunberg, 1993). 2.2 Soil/water interactions Acidification process takes place naturally in the soil. The plant releases hydrogen ions as it uptake nutrients. Though the growth itself is acidifying, there is no net acidification where growth and decay are about equal. However, the cycle is broken by harvesting, the acidifying process will take over. Soil acidification may have biological effects in the respects through lowering of the pH value, an increase in the levels of aluminium and other toxic compounds and a loss of plant nutrients due to increased leaching, consequently may lower drainage water pH (Thunberg, 1993). Moreover, Long-term increase in nitrogen supply may be responsible for alterations in root and shoot growth of plants(Carrol et al, 2003). Figure 5. Soil pH range source ANRA (2003) 2.3 Effects of forestry practices Forestry practices can cause the soil and water to become acidified in several ways. Forest growth change drainage water pathways to stream, and increase stream water acidity. Extensive clear cutting can also accelerate the acidification of surface water. Applying acidifying fertilizer also helps to acidify soil and water (Thunberg, 1993). Twelve years studies of acidification-induced chemical changes in soils of Norway spruce and Scot pine in southern Sweden reveals that pH in mineral soil decreased on average 0.17 units between 1988 and 1999. It is said that these changes in forest soil are mainly due to the extensive deposition of acidifying substances (sulphur and nitrogen compounds) during the latter part of the 20th century (Jà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nsson et al, 2003). In addition, atmospheric pollution directly damages forest itself. Since the early 1970s, West Germany has experienced a rapid and widespread decline in the health of its forest trees; especially sensitive species were affec ted by exposure to low levels of pollutants (Ling et al, 1987). 2.5 Groundwater quality Most of the precipitation sinks to some extent into the ground. The more permeable the soil, the more water dribbles down. Normally acid rain will become less acid as it penetrates through the ground. However, where the soil becomes acidified and has less ability to neutralize, the effect will be decrease until it finally ceases. It is unlikely that acid groundwater will be harmful to human health, however toxic heavy metals, such as aluminium and cadmium may appear at elevated level where highly acidic. These metals are harmful for human health (Thunberg, 1993). 3. Solutions Solutions to the problems of acidification fall into two groups, which are cure and prevention. Remedial measures can be applied where the problems actually arise (i.e. soils and surface waters). Preventive measures can be applied at source (i.e. at point of emission of the sulphur and nitrogen oxides). The latter are expensive and the least acceptable to industry, however they are in fact more effective, more sustainable, and more immediately required (Park, 1987). Causal treatment by reducing aciditying emissions is the primary goal in a long-term as preventive measures, however outcomes from this approach are still uncertain and recovery may be slow. Indicative treatment, involving the addition of neutralizing agent such as powdered limestone to affected environment is the only realistic remedy in the short-term, and has become a widespread practice in Europe (Thunberg, 1993). 3.1 Short-term solutions Remedial action should be taken after the problems happen. This requires not simply the elimination of symptoms of damage (i.e. restocking fish in acidified lakes, planting new trees); it also involves restoration of natural chemical balances to ensure that damage does not reappear. Some materials in nature have ability to buffer, or neutralize, or offset acid input. Lime and limestone are the most accepted of a range of chemicals that can be used to buffer acidic materials. Lime has been added normally by spraying from helicopter to catchments, soils and forests to alleviate damage and improve conditions for environment (Park, 1987). With regard to the lakes and streams, this raises pH value of the water and decrease in the levels of heavy metals. After the liming many species quickly return to their former habitat (Thunberg, 1993). This approach has been most widely investigated in Sweden (Park, 1987). This measure had been made in UK as well. Stream chemistry and biological effect was monitored for 10 years after the catchments of three acidified Welsh streams at Llyn Brianne were limed in 1987/88. This monitoring reveals that chemistry in treated streams changed significantly as mean annual pH increased from 5-5.1 before liming to 6.1-6.2; mean annual aluminium concentrations decreased from 0.15-0.18 to 0.05-0.11 mg L-1, and calcium concentrations increased from 0.8-2.0 to 2.4-4.5 mg L-1. The abundance of Acid-sensive taxa in limed streams increased after treatment. Liming has also been used as a means of restoring acidified soils. This improves the productivity of croplands and forests. However, liming can cause negative impacts on stream, such as fine CaCO3 deposited on the stream banthos. In addition, liming is an expensive ‘cure' measure. Sweden spent approximately $10 million from 1980-1983 for liming. Moreover, it is not practical for many lakes and rives, for some streams it is no help at all. There is uncertainty in relation to the effect of liming in a long run. Many studies have undertaken for the effects of post liming over short timescales, yet little has known about the long-term effects. At least 10 years monitoring is recommended (Bradley et al, 2002). Liming is a interim measures that provide biological defence, however it does not attack the root caused of the problems. It has been said that ‘a sort of artificial respiration for dead lakes and streams'. Therefore, real effective measures are long-term prevention deliberate through a sustained policy, rather than cure. 3.2 Long-term solutions The only way to solve the problem of acidification in the long run is to reduce emissions of pollutants. The central point of the political debate over acid rain is the need to reduce rainfall acidity by controlling emission of SO2 and NOX at source, mainly from power stations and vehicles: Reducing emissions of SO2 from power stations by: > Burn less fossil fuel > Switch to low-sulphur fuel > Fuel desulphurisation > Sulphur reduction at combustion > Flue gas desulphurisation > Disperse flue gases Reducing emission of NOx from power stations by: > Reduce NOx emissions during burning > Reduce NOx levels after burning Reducing emissions of NOx from vehicles by: > Modify engines or exhausts to reduce emissions > Change to different type of engine > Transport planning It is said that technology of controlling and reducing such emissions already exist. Some methods should be applied separately or in combination to be able to bring reduction to agreed levels within agreed time-scales. However, this problem is not only to do with a technical one. Political goodwill is essential as this measures involves high cost. All the cost should be offset by positive side-effects such as the creation of new jobs and generation of useful by-products (i.e. commercial sulphuric acid), the values of conserving fish, forest and crops, and benefits in improved human health (Park, 1987). In recent decades, there have been national and international efforts to achieve reduction in emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds to the atmosphere (Ferrier et at, 2001). As previously mentioned, emissions of sulphur and Nitrogen are carried by air and deposited as gases and aerosols and dissolved in rainwater, in areas far from their sources. The quality of air is very much influenced by emissions in others, so it will benefit little for any country alone to reduce emissions. This is called transboundary Import-Export Budgets. Data for 1998 is presented in Appendix A Without international cooperation, there can be no real solution (Thunberg, 1993). The details of these treaties and protocols are presented in Appendix C 4. Improvement Recent data shows that both emissions seem steadily declined particularly after these treaties and protocols noted above have adopted (See appendix B). However, compared to reduction of SO2 emission, NOX emission need to be reduced further, especially U.S, whose emission has not been much reduced. Conclusion Acidification has a long history as posing adverse impacts on various ecosystems and human health. The main sources of pollution are SO2 and NOX. These pollutants are naturally exist, however recent increases of these pollutants are caused by human-induced factors, such as power generation and transportation. Remedial measures have been taken to abate damaged environment by acid deposition. Preventive measures have been adopted for preventing further damages. In attempts to make steadily progress for both redemption and prevention for solution of acidification for water quality, use of combination of short-term and long-term solution will be recommended. Acid Rain Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, i. e. elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure through the process of wet deposition. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. The corrosive effect of polluted, acidic city air on limestone and marble was noted in the 17th century by John Evelyn, who remarked upon the poor condition of the Arundel marbles. Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere have increased. In 1852, Robert Angus Smith was the first to show the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England. Though acidic rain was discovered in 1852, it was not until the late 1960s that scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon. [6] The term â€Å"acid rain† was coined in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith. 7] Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a â€Å"dead† lake. Public awareness of acid rain in the U. S increased in the 1970s after The New York Times promulgated reports from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the myriad deleterious environmental effects demonstrated to result from it. Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below 2. 4 have been reported in industrialized areas. Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in China and Russia and areas down-wind from them. These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat and electricity. The problem of acid rain not only has increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation. [13][14] Often deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of the emissions, with mountainous regions tending to receive the greatest deposition (simply because of their higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the low pH of rain (compared to the local emissions) which falls in Scandinavia. Acid rain The French chemist Ducros first used the term ‘pluie acide' in 1845. The phraqse ‘acid rain' ,was brought in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith (Wellburn, 1994). Back in fifties, there were observations of lakes in Scandinavia losing their fish populations. Anglers and naturalists noticed that fish stocks in many lakes of southern Scandinavia were diminishing. Freshwater acidification had rapidly worsened over a few decades. Although acid rain and the acidification are a not new problem that has received considerable attention for many years, it was not until 1960s that scientists were able to link these effects to any specific cause. Later it was found to be atmospheric pollution. Acidification is not a regional phenomenon. In Scotland, studies show that the acidification began around the middle of the last centuries and the process has accelerated in the last three decades. In southern Norway, It has reported that 87 lakes had a pH below 5.5 (Mason, 1996). Damaged forests were becoming widespread in West Germany. As these examples show, acidification is an international problem. Pollutants may be carried with winds over distances, from points hundreds or thousands of miles away. Some countries are net importers of pollution, and others are exporters. The effects of acidification are varies, not only pollution of lakes and forests as previously mentioned, but also effects on fauna and flora, soil, groundwater and direct or indirect harm on human health, and all things are influenced by water quality through hydrological pathway (Thunberg, 1993). The aim of this report is to discuss causes and effects of acidification that has been concerned until now, and present possible short-term and long-term soluti on to acid deposition effects on water quality 1. Acidification and its causes Airborne pollution can influence the environment both directly and indirectly. Primary pollutant is Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. When these are present in high concentrations, they can cause damage on environment and human's health. These direct effects are often peak in the vicinity of the emission sources. Industrial society discharges suphur dioxide and nitrogen that form sulphuric acid and nitric acid, which may be carried with the winds over long distances before descending in rain or snow. Indirect effects often occur as acidified soil and water far away from the sources of emission (Thunberg, 1993). There are gas-phase reactions, which produce acidity in the atomosphere. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides form suophuric and nitric acids on coming into contact with water. When these acids reach the ground in rain and snow, it is called ‘wet deposition'. However, acid oxides may also be deposited directy as gases, or cles, which is called ‘dry deposition'. The rates of dry deposition velocity may depend on the nature of the land surfaces. Rates of wet deposition depend on the precipitation rate, the washout ratio of dissolved pollutant per unit mass of cloud water or rain divided by the concentration of the same pollutant per unit mass of air (Wellburn, 1994. A low pH value means a high level of acidification. Water in neutral condition has a pH of 7 (Thunberg, 1993). Sulphur and Nitrogen Cycles are presented below (Figure 1 and 2). Figure 1. Sulphur Cycle Source: ICU (2003) Figure 2. Nitrogen Cycle Source: ICU (2003) 1.1 Sulphur Sulphur compounds are responsible for about two-thirds of the acidification of rain. Sulphur in gaseous form, sulphur dioxide (SO2), is mainly formed in the combustion of oil and coal. The rapid increase in emission of pollutants came after the war followed by consumption of fuel and oil. It was reported that approximately 20 million tons of sulphur are now emitted every year in Europe. There is also a great deal of airborne pollution in North America, where about 12 million tons of sulphur is released every year. Sulphur can be formed by naturally by eruption of vulcanoes, from seas and oceans and certain processes in the soil. However, 90 per cent of the emissions of sulphur to the atmosphere are derived from industrialised parts of Europe and North America. This is ten times the level that can be considered natural (Thunberg, 1993). 1.2 Nitrogen Nitrogen oxides (NOX) are grouped term of nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen oxides are formed in all types of combustion, most of the NOX are formed by the reaction of nitrogen gas in the combustion air with oxygen. When the mixture of nitrogen gas and oxygen is heated, they interrelate to form NOX. The higher the combustion temperature, the more NOX will be formed. The largest source of NOX emission is road traffic. These emissions are reported to have doubled during the 1960s, approximately 22 million tons of NO2 are released every year in Europe. Certain types of fertilizer are another source of nitrogen pollution. Nitrate leaching intensified the acidification of the soil, which release unwanted substances such as aluminium (Thunberg, 1993). 2. The environmental effects of acidification 2.1 water acidification and aquatic biota Acidification was first noticed in the lakes. The initial victims of acidification are nutrient-deficient lakes in areas where the soil has a poor buffering ability (Thunberg, 1993). It is reported that many lakes in the Rocky Mountain have little alkalinity to buffer increase in acid deposition, however loss of alkalinity has been observed caused by high concentration of acid deposition due to the emission in the Rocky Mountain region (Turk et al, 1989). Figure 3. Acidified lake: A deep blue colour of a lake is a sign of acidification. Source: ARIC (2000) In severely acidified lake, the fish will have vanished entirely, bog moss will have spread out over the lake floor, and only few plant and animal species will remain. The first victims of acidification are crayfish, snails and mussels, certain types of zoo- and phytoplankton, and some species of mayfly. Usually, certain types of bog moss and insects those are resistant to acidification remains. This is not only low pH value that takes a heavy toll of fauna and flora. In acid lakes there are increased concentrations of aluminium in ion form, which is highly toxic to many organisms. The loss of fauna / flora is due to the combination of a lowered pH and aluminium poisoning. The level of other heavy metals also rises such as cadmium, zinc, and lead. Those heavy metals including aluminium flow into lakes from the acidified soils of the surroundings. The relationship of prey and predators will also change, for instance certain insects on which they usually prey begin to thrive when their predators are disappeared (Thunberg, 1993). 2.2 Soil/water interactions Acidification process takes place naturally in the soil. The plant releases hydrogen ions as it uptake nutrients. Though the growth itself is acidifying, there is no net acidification where growth and decay are about equal. However, the cycle is broken by harvesting, the acidifying process will take over. Soil acidification may have biological effects in the respects through lowering of the pH value, an increase in the levels of aluminium and other toxic compounds and a loss of plant nutrients due to increased leaching, consequently may lower drainage water pH (Thunberg, 1993). Moreover, Long-term increase in nitrogen supply may be responsible for alterations in root and shoot growth of plants(Carrol et al, 2003). Figure 5. Soil pH range source ANRA (2003) 2.3 Effects of forestry practices Forestry practices can cause the soil and water to become acidified in several ways. Forest growth change drainage water pathways to stream, and increase stream water acidity. Extensive clear cutting can also accelerate the acidification of surface water. Applying acidifying fertilizer also helps to acidify soil and water (Thunberg, 1993). Twelve years studies of acidification-induced chemical changes in soils of Norway spruce and Scot pine in southern Sweden reveals that pH in mineral soil decreased on average 0.17 units between 1988 and 1999. It is said that these changes in forest soil are mainly due to the extensive deposition of acidifying substances (sulphur and nitrogen compounds) during the latter part of the 20th century (Jà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nsson et al, 2003). In addition, atmospheric pollution directly damages forest itself. Since the early 1970s, West Germany has experienced a rapid and widespread decline in the health of its forest trees; especially sensitive species were affec ted by exposure to low levels of pollutants (Ling et al, 1987). 2.5 Groundwater quality Most of the precipitation sinks to some extent into the ground. The more permeable the soil, the more water dribbles down. Normally acid rain will become less acid as it penetrates through the ground. However, where the soil becomes acidified and has less ability to neutralize, the effect will be decrease until it finally ceases. It is unlikely that acid groundwater will be harmful to human health, however toxic heavy metals, such as aluminium and cadmium may appear at elevated level where highly acidic. These metals are harmful for human health (Thunberg, 1993). 3. Solutions Solutions to the problems of acidification fall into two groups, which are cure and prevention. Remedial measures can be applied where the problems actually arise (i.e. soils and surface waters). Preventive measures can be applied at source (i.e. at point of emission of the sulphur and nitrogen oxides). The latter are expensive and the least acceptable to industry, however they are in fact more effective, more sustainable, and more immediately required (Park, 1987). Causal treatment by reducing aciditying emissions is the primary goal in a long-term as preventive measures, however outcomes from this approach are still uncertain and recovery may be slow. Indicative treatment, involving the addition of neutralizing agent such as powdered limestone to affected environment is the only realistic remedy in the short-term, and has become a widespread practice in Europe (Thunberg, 1993). 3.1 Short-term solutions Remedial action should be taken after the problems happen. This requires not simply the elimination of symptoms of damage (i.e. restocking fish in acidified lakes, planting new trees); it also involves restoration of natural chemical balances to ensure that damage does not reappear. Some materials in nature have ability to buffer, or neutralize, or offset acid input. Lime and limestone are the most accepted of a range of chemicals that can be used to buffer acidic materials. Lime has been added normally by spraying from helicopter to catchments, soils and forests to alleviate damage and improve conditions for environment (Park, 1987). With regard to the lakes and streams, this raises pH value of the water and decrease in the levels of heavy metals. After the liming many species quickly return to their former habitat (Thunberg, 1993). This approach has been most widely investigated in Sweden (Park, 1987). This measure had been made in UK as well. Stream chemistry and biological effect was monitored for 10 years after the catchments of three acidified Welsh streams at Llyn Brianne were limed in 1987/88. This monitoring reveals that chemistry in treated streams changed significantly as mean annual pH increased from 5-5.1 before liming to 6.1-6.2; mean annual aluminium concentrations decreased from 0.15-0.18 to 0.05-0.11 mg L-1, and calcium concentrations increased from 0.8-2.0 to 2.4-4.5 mg L-1. The abundance of Acid-sensive taxa in limed streams increased after treatment. Liming has also been used as a means of restoring acidified soils. This improves the productivity of croplands and forests. However, liming can cause negative impacts on stream, such as fine CaCO3 deposited on the stream banthos. In addition, liming is an expensive ‘cure' measure. Sweden spent approximately $10 million from 1980-1983 for liming. Moreover, it is not practical for many lakes and rives, for some streams it is no help at all. There is uncertainty in relation to the effect of liming in a long run. Many studies have undertaken for the effects of post liming over short timescales, yet little has known about the long-term effects. At least 10 years monitoring is recommended (Bradley et al, 2002). Liming is a interim measures that provide biological defence, however it does not attack the root caused of the problems. It has been said that ‘a sort of artificial respiration for dead lakes and streams'. Therefore, real effective measures are long-term prevention deliberate through a sustained policy, rather than cure. 3.2 Long-term solutions The only way to solve the problem of acidification in the long run is to reduce emissions of pollutants. The central point of the political debate over acid rain is the need to reduce rainfall acidity by controlling emission of SO2 and NOX at source, mainly from power stations and vehicles: Reducing emissions of SO2 from power stations by: > Burn less fossil fuel > Switch to low-sulphur fuel > Fuel desulphurisation > Sulphur reduction at combustion > Flue gas desulphurisation > Disperse flue gases Reducing emission of NOx from power stations by: > Reduce NOx emissions during burning > Reduce NOx levels after burning Reducing emissions of NOx from vehicles by: > Modify engines or exhausts to reduce emissions > Change to different type of engine > Transport planning It is said that technology of controlling and reducing such emissions already exist. Some methods should be applied separately or in combination to be able to bring reduction to agreed levels within agreed time-scales. However, this problem is not only to do with a technical one. Political goodwill is essential as this measures involves high cost. All the cost should be offset by positive side-effects such as the creation of new jobs and generation of useful by-products (i.e. commercial sulphuric acid), the values of conserving fish, forest and crops, and benefits in improved human health (Park, 1987). In recent decades, there have been national and international efforts to achieve reduction in emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds to the atmosphere (Ferrier et at, 2001). As previously mentioned, emissions of sulphur and Nitrogen are carried by air and deposited as gases and aerosols and dissolved in rainwater, in areas far from their sources. The quality of air is very much influenced by emissions in others, so it will benefit little for any country alone to reduce emissions. This is called transboundary Import-Export Budgets. Data for 1998 is presented in Appendix A Without international cooperation, there can be no real solution (Thunberg, 1993). The details of these treaties and protocols are presented in Appendix C 4. Improvement Recent data shows that both emissions seem steadily declined particularly after these treaties and protocols noted above have adopted (See appendix B). However, compared to reduction of SO2 emission, NOX emission need to be reduced further, especially U.S, whose emission has not been much reduced. Conclusion Acidification has a long history as posing adverse impacts on various ecosystems and human health. The main sources of pollution are SO2 and NOX. These pollutants are naturally exist, however recent increases of these pollutants are caused by human-induced factors, such as power generation and transportation. Remedial measures have been taken to abate damaged environment by acid deposition. Preventive measures have been adopted for preventing further damages. In attempts to make steadily progress for both redemption and prevention for solution of acidification for water quality, use of combination of short-term and long-term solution will be recommended. Acid rain The French chemist Ducros first used the term ‘pluie acide' in 1845. The phraqse ‘acid rain' ,was brought in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith (Wellburn, 1994). Back in fifties, there were observations of lakes in Scandinavia losing their fish populations. Anglers and naturalists noticed that fish stocks in many lakes of southern Scandinavia were diminishing. Freshwater acidification had rapidly worsened over a few decades. Although acid rain and the acidification are a not new problem that has received considerable attention for many years, it was not until 1960s that scientists were able to link these effects to any specific cause. Later it was found to be atmospheric pollution. Acidification is not a regional phenomenon. In Scotland, studies show that the acidification began around the middle of the last centuries and the process has accelerated in the last three decades. In southern Norway, It has reported that 87 lakes had a pH below 5.5 (Mason, 1996). Damaged forests were becoming widespread in West Germany. As these examples show, acidification is an international problem. Pollutants may be carried with winds over distances, from points hundreds or thousands of miles away. Some countries are net importers of pollution, and others are exporters. The effects of acidification are varies, not only pollution of lakes and forests as previously mentioned, but also effects on fauna and flora, soil, groundwater and direct or indirect harm on human health, and all things are influenced by water quality through hydrological pathway (Thunberg, 1993). The aim of this report is to discuss causes and effects of acidification that has been concerned until now, and present possible short-term and long-term soluti on to acid deposition effects on water quality 1. Acidification and its causes Airborne pollution can influence the environment both directly and indirectly. Primary pollutant is Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. When these are present in high concentrations, they can cause damage on environment and human's health. These direct effects are often peak in the vicinity of the emission sources. Industrial society discharges suphur dioxide and nitrogen that form sulphuric acid and nitric acid, which may be carried with the winds over long distances before descending in rain or snow. Indirect effects often occur as acidified soil and water far away from the sources of emission (Thunberg, 1993). There are gas-phase reactions, which produce acidity in the atomosphere. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides form suophuric and nitric acids on coming into contact with water. When these acids reach the ground in rain and snow, it is called ‘wet deposition'. However, acid oxides may also be deposited directy as gases, or cles, which is called ‘dry deposition'. The rates of dry deposition velocity may depend on the nature of the land surfaces. Rates of wet deposition depend on the precipitation rate, the washout ratio of dissolved pollutant per unit mass of cloud water or rain divided by the concentration of the same pollutant per unit mass of air (Wellburn, 1994. A low pH value means a high level of acidification. Water in neutral condition has a pH of 7 (Thunberg, 1993). Sulphur and Nitrogen Cycles are presented below (Figure 1 and 2). Figure 1. Sulphur Cycle Source: ICU (2003) Figure 2. Nitrogen Cycle Source: ICU (2003) 1.1 Sulphur Sulphur compounds are responsible for about two-thirds of the acidification of rain. Sulphur in gaseous form, sulphur dioxide (SO2), is mainly formed in the combustion of oil and coal. The rapid increase in emission of pollutants came after the war followed by consumption of fuel and oil. It was reported that approximately 20 million tons of sulphur are now emitted every year in Europe. There is also a great deal of airborne pollution in North America, where about 12 million tons of sulphur is released every year. Sulphur can be formed by naturally by eruption of vulcanoes, from seas and oceans and certain processes in the soil. However, 90 per cent of the emissions of sulphur to the atmosphere are derived from industrialised parts of Europe and North America. This is ten times the level that can be considered natural (Thunberg, 1993). 1.2 Nitrogen Nitrogen oxides (NOX) are grouped term of nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen oxides are formed in all types of combustion, most of the NOX are formed by the reaction of nitrogen gas in the combustion air with oxygen. When the mixture of nitrogen gas and oxygen is heated, they interrelate to form NOX. The higher the combustion temperature, the more NOX will be formed. The largest source of NOX emission is road traffic. These emissions are reported to have doubled during the 1960s, approximately 22 million tons of NO2 are released every year in Europe. Certain types of fertilizer are another source of nitrogen pollution. Nitrate leaching intensified the acidification of the soil, which release unwanted substances such as aluminium (Thunberg, 1993). 2. The environmental effects of acidification 2.1 water acidification and aquatic biota Acidification was first noticed in the lakes. The initial victims of acidification are nutrient-deficient lakes in areas where the soil has a poor buffering ability (Thunberg, 1993). It is reported that many lakes in the Rocky Mountain have little alkalinity to buffer increase in acid deposition, however loss of alkalinity has been observed caused by high concentration of acid deposition due to the emission in the Rocky Mountain region (Turk et al, 1989). Figure 3. Acidified lake: A deep blue colour of a lake is a sign of acidification. Source: ARIC (2000) In severely acidified lake, the fish will have vanished entirely, bog moss will have spread out over the lake floor, and only few plant and animal species will remain. The first victims of acidification are crayfish, snails and mussels, certain types of zoo- and phytoplankton, and some species of mayfly. Usually, certain types of bog moss and insects those are resistant to acidification remains. This is not only low pH value that takes a heavy toll of fauna and flora. In acid lakes there are increased concentrations of aluminium in ion form, which is highly toxic to many organisms. The loss of fauna / flora is due to the combination of a lowered pH and aluminium poisoning. The level of other heavy metals also rises such as cadmium, zinc, and lead. Those heavy metals including aluminium flow into lakes from the acidified soils of the surroundings. The relationship of prey and predators will also change, for instance certain insects on which they usually prey begin to thrive when their predators are disappeared (Thunberg, 1993). 2.2 Soil/water interactions Acidification process takes place naturally in the soil. The plant releases hydrogen ions as it uptake nutrients. Though the growth itself is acidifying, there is no net acidification where growth and decay are about equal. However, the cycle is broken by harvesting, the acidifying process will take over. Soil acidification may have biological effects in the respects through lowering of the pH value, an increase in the levels of aluminium and other toxic compounds and a loss of plant nutrients due to increased leaching, consequently may lower drainage water pH (Thunberg, 1993). Moreover, Long-term increase in nitrogen supply may be responsible for alterations in root and shoot growth of plants(Carrol et al, 2003). Figure 5. Soil pH range source ANRA (2003) 2.3 Effects of forestry practices Forestry practices can cause the soil and water to become acidified in several ways. Forest growth change drainage water pathways to stream, and increase stream water acidity. Extensive clear cutting can also accelerate the acidification of surface water. Applying acidifying fertilizer also helps to acidify soil and water (Thunberg, 1993). Twelve years studies of acidification-induced chemical changes in soils of Norway spruce and Scot pine in southern Sweden reveals that pH in mineral soil decreased on average 0.17 units between 1988 and 1999. It is said that these changes in forest soil are mainly due to the extensive deposition of acidifying substances (sulphur and nitrogen compounds) during the latter part of the 20th century (Jà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nsson et al, 2003). In addition, atmospheric pollution directly damages forest itself. Since the early 1970s, West Germany has experienced a rapid and widespread decline in the health of its forest trees; especially sensitive species were affec ted by exposure to low levels of pollutants (Ling et al, 1987). 2.5 Groundwater quality Most of the precipitation sinks to some extent into the ground. The more permeable the soil, the more water dribbles down. Normally acid rain will become less acid as it penetrates through the ground. However, where the soil becomes acidified and has less ability to neutralize, the effect will be decrease until it finally ceases. It is unlikely that acid groundwater will be harmful to human health, however toxic heavy metals, such as aluminium and cadmium may appear at elevated level where highly acidic. These metals are harmful for human health (Thunberg, 1993). 3. Solutions Solutions to the problems of acidification fall into two groups, which are cure and prevention. Remedial measures can be applied where the problems actually arise (i.e. soils and surface waters). Preventive measures can be applied at source (i.e. at point of emission of the sulphur and nitrogen oxides). The latter are expensive and the least acceptable to industry, however they are in fact more effective, more sustainable, and more immediately required (Park, 1987). Causal treatment by reducing aciditying emissions is the primary goal in a long-term as preventive measures, however outcomes from this approach are still uncertain and recovery may be slow. Indicative treatment, involving the addition of neutralizing agent such as powdered limestone to affected environment is the only realistic remedy in the short-term, and has become a widespread practice in Europe (Thunberg, 1993). 3.1 Short-term solutions Remedial action should be taken after the problems happen. This requires not simply the elimination of symptoms of damage (i.e. restocking fish in acidified lakes, planting new trees); it also involves restoration of natural chemical balances to ensure that damage does not reappear. Some materials in nature have ability to buffer, or neutralize, or offset acid input. Lime and limestone are the most accepted of a range of chemicals that can be used to buffer acidic materials. Lime has been added normally by spraying from helicopter to catchments, soils and forests to alleviate damage and improve conditions for environment (Park, 1987). With regard to the lakes and streams, this raises pH value of the water and decrease in the levels of heavy metals. After the liming many species quickly return to their former habitat (Thunberg, 1993). This approach has been most widely investigated in Sweden (Park, 1987). This measure had been made in UK as well. Stream chemistry and biological effect was monitored for 10 years after the catchments of three acidified Welsh streams at Llyn Brianne were limed in 1987/88. This monitoring reveals that chemistry in treated streams changed significantly as mean annual pH increased from 5-5.1 before liming to 6.1-6.2; mean annual aluminium concentrations decreased from 0.15-0.18 to 0.05-0.11 mg L-1, and calcium concentrations increased from 0.8-2.0 to 2.4-4.5 mg L-1. The abundance of Acid-sensive taxa in limed streams increased after treatment. Liming has also been used as a means of restoring acidified soils. This improves the productivity of croplands and forests. However, liming can cause negative impacts on stream, such as fine CaCO3 deposited on the stream banthos. In addition, liming is an expensive ‘cure' measure. Sweden spent approximately $10 million from 1980-1983 for liming. Moreover, it is not practical for many lakes and rives, for some streams it is no help at all. There is uncertainty in relation to the effect of liming in a long run. Many studies have undertaken for the effects of post liming over short timescales, yet little has known about the long-term effects. At least 10 years monitoring is recommended (Bradley et al, 2002). Liming is a interim measures that provide biological defence, however it does not attack the root caused of the problems. It has been said that ‘a sort of artificial respiration for dead lakes and streams'. Therefore, real effective measures are long-term prevention deliberate through a sustained policy, rather than cure. 3.2 Long-term solutions The only way to solve the problem of acidification in the long run is to reduce emissions of pollutants. The central point of the political debate over acid rain is the need to reduce rainfall acidity by controlling emission of SO2 and NOX at source, mainly from power stations and vehicles: Reducing emissions of SO2 from power stations by: > Burn less fossil fuel > Switch to low-sulphur fuel > Fuel desulphurisation > Sulphur reduction at combustion > Flue gas desulphurisation > Disperse flue gases Reducing emission of NOx from power stations by: > Reduce NOx emissions during burning > Reduce NOx levels after burning Reducing emissions of NOx from vehicles by: > Modify engines or exhausts to reduce emissions > Change to different type of engine > Transport planning It is said that technology of controlling and reducing such emissions already exist. Some methods should be applied separately or in combination to be able to bring reduction to agreed levels within agreed time-scales. However, this problem is not only to do with a technical one. Political goodwill is essential as this measures involves high cost. All the cost should be offset by positive side-effects such as the creation of new jobs and generation of useful by-products (i.e. commercial sulphuric acid), the values of conserving fish, forest and crops, and benefits in improved human health (Park, 1987). In recent decades, there have been national and international efforts to achieve reduction in emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds to the atmosphere (Ferrier et at, 2001). As previously mentioned, emissions of sulphur and Nitrogen are carried by air and deposited as gases and aerosols and dissolved in rainwater, in areas far from their sources. The quality of air is very much influenced by emissions in others, so it will benefit little for any country alone to reduce emissions. This is called transboundary Import-Export Budgets. Data for 1998 is presented in Appendix A Without international cooperation, there can be no real solution (Thunberg, 1993). The details of these treaties and protocols are presented in Appendix C 4. Improvement Recent data shows that both emissions seem steadily declined particularly after these treaties and protocols noted above have adopted (See appendix B). However, compared to reduction of SO2 emission, NOX emission need to be reduced further, especially U.S, whose emission has not been much reduced. Conclusion Acidification has a long history as posing adverse impacts on various ecosystems and human health. The main sources of pollution are SO2 and NOX. These pollutants are naturally exist, however recent increases of these pollutants are caused by human-induced factors, such as power generation and transportation. Remedial measures have been taken to abate damaged environment by acid deposition. Preventive measures have been adopted for preventing further damages. In attempts to make steadily progress for both redemption and prevention for solution of acidification for water quality, use of combination of short-term and long-term solution will be recommended.

Free Global Imbalances Informative Essay

Free Global Imbalances Informative Essay Brief by the United Nations University, some countries in the region were undergoing a positive economic advancement. The report reveals that some African countries richly endowed with natural resources were recording unprecedented rates of economic growth as a result a price boom generated by the growing demand for raw material and fossil energy from China and India amongst others (1). However, the report reveals that after the crisis, the price of oil and many other primary commodity items fell sharply, and reverted to tear pre-boom levels. The prices of most mineral ores, in particular, declined considerably in response to the sluggish in international markets (1). The long-term dreams of the resource endowed states of attaining industrial and scientific revolutions based on the exports of raw materials came to an abrupt end. The continent experiences a paradoxical situation of having plenty of resources and being the poorest and least developed continent in the world. The contin ent relies on foreign exchange earnings from the exports of locally produced goods. The foreign exchange rates, which are greatly affected by the economic and financial crisis resulting from the global imbalances, greatly determine what the continent receives in return. Similar scenarios were witnessed in the Latin American countries. Conclusion It is worth noting that most of the developed countries currently exhibit low economic growth rates compared to the developing countries. As Peters, et al (11) observed that many countries including the United States experience negative growth whereas countries like China and India still maintain positive growth in real GDP in 2009. A significant impact that global imbalance has is that it leads to excessive foreign exchange reserve. The question as to why many countries including the developed ones continue to improve on their current account status while the US deteriorates should be the governments main task. On the other hand, what the developing countries need to understand, especially those in Africa and the Latin America, is that they should not continue with their economic dependency principle. The countries have adopted a routine of exporting their products to their former colonial states. Besides, the colonial governments established education systems that could only endow the natives of these countries with limited technical knowledge that could be used to transform the raw products into consumable goods locally thereby calling for export. These systems should be abolished and the governments should embark on inventive and innovative educational systems.

Managing Change, Balanced Scorecard

Managing Change, Balanced Scorecard What Is Bsc? The balance scorecard which is also known as (BSC) is a tool that is used by organizations to measure the numerous outcomes that may result from the activities they carry out. It helps in evaluating the financial performance of an organization, the level of customer satisfaction, the excellence with which the internal processes are run and the ways by which the employees learn and various ways in which they can grow. The outcomes from the organization can then be connected to the vision of the organization and also their strategies (Gupta 114)Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Managing Change, Balanced Scorecard specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Perspectives in a BSC Financial perspective The outcome of a particular organization can be considered from the point of view of the finances. From this angle, various aspects of the finances can be considered such as the profitability of the organization. The scor ecard technique should take into consideration that for most organizations, the profit making perspective is one of its major objectives and hence cannot be ignored. This is the returns that an organization makes after they have included all their deductions from their income and what they remain with is the profit. The growth of an organization is also to be considered in the scorecard because this is crucial for any organization if it aims at being competitive over a long period of time. The growth can be calculated in form of percentages, where the gradual increment of profits is considered, the increase of shares that are made available in the market stock exchange and also the worth of the organization at that particular time. This requires documents from previous financial years to come up with a steady and reliable feedback of the financial increment or decrement (Gupta 115). The value of the shares is also included in the scorecard as a way of valuing the organization agains t the many more in the market. The value also determines the amount of capital the organization may be having in circulation from the shareholders. The share that the organization has in the market is also necessary, such as the size or the volume of customers, the resources among their competitors and this is important is setting goals for the next financial years. The operating expenses have to be considered especially the ones that have been reduced as a clear indication of growth with minimal expenses and this may also lead to a higher profit. The assets are also recorded to show the turnover they can bring forth is they are disposed. Customer Perspective Customer satisfaction should also be highly regarded in the scorecard since without the customers the organization cannot run. The time that it takes for an organization to respond to a customer is necessary because the faster it is the better feedback and loyalty the organization gets. The time that it takes to cover a particu lar issue for a customer is also necessary as it determines if an organization gets to keep its customers or not (Gupta 116).Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The quality of customer service is also necessary as it sets the standards of the organization and also helps in its evaluation. The quality on the part of the customer translated to the effectiveness of the organization to meet their needs. Performance and the service delivered by the personnel is also considered on the score card. The cost that is incurred by the organization to meet various activities is necessary, if a customer is required to give an extra fee so that they can get special services that are not offered free of charge. Internal Perspective The business may have internal processes and that perspective is considered in the scorecard. The processes that are found within the business or the org anization are; cycle time, quality, employee skills and productivity. The cycle time is recorded from when a new product is introduced to the market and the time it takes to reach the maturity stage. The maturity stage is when product begins to get popular with the clients and it goes to a peak and the time it gets to the plateau stage of growth. The time it takes in this cycle is recorded and used in the evaluation in connection to the vision of the organization. The quality of products or services offered by an organization or business should be considered in order to assess the value of the organization in the current market. The skills possessed by the employees also matter because they dictate the output of the organization and also the quality to be delivered by that particular business. The productivity has to be put in context because this is what makes a business relevant and the managers must ensure that all activities are geared to increase the productivity and at the sam e time maintaining their quality. Decisions that are made within the business will manifest in the kind of results that come out of this. These decisions have to be recorded to create accountability of every result to a previous action or decision. Actions in the business are also to be in the scorecard from whatever level they may have been made from. Every action has a reaction and some may be working together with the vision of the organization and others may be the reason why most of the objectives have not been meet in the business.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Managing Change, Balanced Scorecard specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The coordination of activities is very crucial, as this is what gives the over-view of the strategies laid out by a business. The better the processes work out together the better the outcome that comes with it. The resources that are within the business have to be considered too. T he resources can be in form of money or even assets and all these have to be looked at in a way that they can be used to enhance the production or continuity of the organization. The capabilities also have to be recorded so that they can easily forecast the ease with which the organization can adapt to future changes in the market. Innovation and Learning Perspective The employees are of great value to an organization and their skills determine the productivity of the organization. The employees have to be trained through a learning process on the various ways of meeting the standards and quality of the organization. For instance, when a business introduces new services or products to the market, it is important for management to equip the employees with the necessary information on the new release so that they can comfortably market the new products to the customers and they will answer all questions with ease. The employees have to be shown that the customers are of great value, a nd this may come about through training that will help them see that every single customer, may they be loyal customers or potential customers should be treated in the same esteem so that they can feel they belong to that business. The efficiency with which the employees operate should also be considered, which can be seen through the time it takes them to attend to clients (Gupta 120). Case Study: Al-Kindi Pharmaceuticals Al-Kindi Pharmaceutical Industries PLC is a medium sized biopharmaceutical company that has been one of the many organizations across the globe that has successfully implemented the business scorecard as a tool in management. This can be clearly seen at the corporation level and it has carefully trickled down to the employee levels at each individual level. It can be seen that the organization has to work hand in hand with everyone in the company to achieve outcomes that have a great connection to the vision of the organization and to work with their strategies.Ad vertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The strategies that are put in place by the organization so that they can work for all the stakeholders have been in the context of the four perspectives in the business scorecard. The four perspectives are; financial performance, internal business processes, learning and growth and the reputation with customers. The pharmaceutical company has a matrix form of organization and this can be seen where there are different directors in various branches. This form of structure helps in increasing the profit as the various stations ensure that the company covers a greater area of market. The internal business processes such as the decisions to be made or actions have to be presented to the managing director before they are passed to be applied to all areas, hence reducing the level of risks or mistakes and promotes orderliness. The geographical distribution ensures that there is customer satisfaction as they are reached individually to their grassroots. The growth and learning process of the employees can be seen from the development of the various directors in each station who can keenly work with each employee to give a higher outcome for the company in overall production. Al-Kindi Pharmaceuticals have been in operation for thirty years in Bahrain. They have sought with time to have minimum cost and at the same time maintain the quality of their products. This led them to having the business scorecard, which would outline the vision, mission, objectives and even the strategies to ensure that they remained in the market for a long time. Al-Kindi is a research driven company, which looks into the global healthcare with great values in the biopharmaceutical chain, and they endeavor to form a strong matrix of capabilities. The company focuses on the medical need in the field of cancer, inflammatory diseases and diabetes. The company ensures that they provide therapies that are based on affordable innovation. The company ensures that the stakeholders are taken care of in the four perspectives of the business scorecard. The finances of the company are recorded and it may appear to the employees that the services or therapies are affordable through their vision. The company also seeks to show customer’s satisfaction in the range of diseases in which they offer research in therapies. The owners of the company are reassured that they will get the profits they aim at attaining and the customers are guaranteed of the proper healthcare. The internal processes of the pharmaceuticals business have been featured in the quality of the healthcare they aim to achieve. They point out that the matrix organization they use is of paramount benefit by collectively using different capabilities or skills of the employees in various fields and the diverse station all around the world. Al-Kindi has a strategy in place that ensures its operations are legal through the licensing partnerships. This is guaranteed to provide them with a wider access to the people ac ross the globe and to add on to this it will help them to penetrate a larger market hence raking in more profits for the company. The company also assures its customers through the strategies that they will deliver great breakthroughs in various fields of research. This reassurance is the best thing to the loyal customers and it helps in attracting as well as retaining the potential customers. (Melendez-Ortiz and Vincente 200) Conclusion A strategy is very necessary for a company as it also outlines the way in which the employees will be trained and how they will learn in the same way. For example, Al-Kindi will require including in their strategy how they will be equipping the employees with the information on the new products or even the new services they may be delivering to the market. This will be important to them in the effort to win more customers to their side. This also helps in maintaining the quality standards of the company, which is viewed by many as being reliable. In conclusion, the business scorecard is essential in growing companies that hope to establish themselves in a rapidly growing market. It is used by almost seventy percent of the organizations all over the world. It can be deduced that any business that fails to implement a BSC is destined for a decline in the outcome. Gupta, Praveen. Six Sigma Business Record. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2007. Print Melendez-Ortiz, Ricardo and Vincente, Sanchez. Trading in Genes. Chicago: Earthscan, 2005. Print